This study aims to expand our current knowledge of biological invasions of Georgia by reporting the first records of two non-native moth genera Micromelalopha Nagano, 1916 (Notodontidae), and Antheraea Hübner, 1819 (Saturniidae) from the South Caucasus, based on three male specimens of Micromelalopha sieversi (Staudinger, 1892) and five male specimens of Antheraea pernyi (Guérin-Méneville, 1855). These findings are based on recent field collections, supported by morphological examination and DNA barcoding, and contribute to a better understanding of the region's shifting lepidopteran fauna and potential bio-invasion risks. Additionally, we provide the first comprehensive list of non-native animal species recorded in Georgia, based on literary and online sources.

Antheraea pernyi, barcoding, Lepidoptera, Micromelalopha sieversi, new records, Notodontidae, Saturniidae, South Caucasus

Despite being well defined in a scientific context, the distinction between non-native, and invasive species is often misunderstood by the general public. A non-native species refers to any organism found outside its native range, typically as a result of human activity. In contrast, an invasive species is a subset of these non-native species that, once introduced to a new environment (with or without human mediation), becomes established and causes ecological and economic harm (Soto et al. 2024).

The South Caucasus region, and particularly the Black Sea coast of Georgia, has proved a conducive environment for introduced and invasive invertebrate species, largely due to its favourable climate. This influx has negatively impacted both the ecological balance and economic stability of the region. The earliest documented record of a non-native species in the region is Samia cynthia (Drury, 1773), a species native to East Asia, which was intentionally introduced to north-western Georgia in around 1860 for silk production; it subsequently established a local population in western Georgia (Zolotuhin et al. 2011). Another early documented case is the accidental introduction of the fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea (Drury, 1773) in 1976, most likely transported from Ukraine in infested wood material. A native of North America, it rapidly established itself and inflicted substantial harm on native flora (Japoshvili et al. 2006).

The present study contributes to the growing body of research on non-native and potentially invasive species in Georgia by reporting the first records of two Lepidopteran genera, Micromelalopha Nagano, 1916 (Notodontidae), and Antheraea Hübner, 1819 (Saturniidae) in the South Caucasus. These findings are based on recent specimen collections and supported by morphological analysis and DNA barcoding. The documentation of these genera marks a significant addition to the region’s lepidopteran fauna and raises questions about their origin, potential impact, and future distribution.

The specimens were gathered either by attracting the moths to light or collecting them manually. Location (given in WGS84) and elevation data were obtained using a Garmin MAP 64s GPS. The examined material is kept in a private collection of the senior author (hereafter as JLGT). Specimen identification was carried out using both external morphological characters and DNA barcoding. For morphological identification we used keys by Wu and Fang (2003) and Wu (2017). The photographs of preserved specimens were taken with a Canon EOS 90D camera equipped with a Canon EF 60 mm f/2.8 Macro USM lens. The living Micromelalopha sieversi was photographed using a Canon EOS 5D Mark II camera with a Canon MP-E 65mm f/2.8 1–5x Macro Photo Lens mounted on a Novoflex Castel-L Focusing Rack. Digital images were then prepared in Zerene Stacker “focus stacking” software and Adobe Photoshop CS6 (version 13.0).

The barcoding of M. sieversi was carried out within the Wellcome Sanger Institute’s BIOSCAN project (Hobern 2020), while A. pernyi was barcoded during the Caucasus Barcode of Life project (CaBOL) using the standardised protocol described in Seropian et al. (2023). The newly obtained Cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) sequences were compared with each other and checked against the BOLD Systems database (http://www.boldsystems.org/index.php), where they had been recently uploaded. Barcode Index Number (BIN) (Ratnasingham and Hebert 2013) for the sequenced taxa and their nearest neighbour in BOLD Systems are also given. For the calculation of sequence differentiation, we used p-distance as calculated in the BOLD Systems.

In total, eight specimens (all males) were examined, they comprised two genera both of which represented the first records in the Caucasus. The list below is given in alphabetical order.

Micromelalopha sieversi (Staudinger, 1892)

Figs 1, 2

Micromelalopha sieversi: Dai et al. 2024: 50, figs 1A–B (♂)

Material examined.

Georgia • 2♂; Dighomi Massive, Tbilisi; 21 Jun. 2023; leg: A. Seropian; JLGT • 1♂; Sanzona, Tbilisi; 2 August 2025; leg. L-G. Japaridze; JLGT.

Diagnosis.

For diagnosis, see Wu and Fang (2003).

Barcoding.

We obtained a single sequence (BOLD:ACQ7797), identical to those of M. sieversi from China (BOLD:ACQ7797).

Remarks.

In China, where this species originates, it is an important pest of poplar trees. Commonly, it occurs in 3–4 generations in north-east China, and in 5–7 generations in central and southern China (Dai et al. 2024). Specimens collected in 2023 and 2025 confirm the establishment of a stable population of this species, at least in the capital of Georgia. So far, no substantial harm to local Populus spp. has been documented. It is the first record of the genus Micromelalopha in the Caucasus.

Figure 1. 

Micromelalopha sieversi , male, Tbilisi (Dighomi massive), live specimen, not for scale.

Antheraea pernyi (Guérin-Méneville, 1855)

Fig. 3

Antheraea pernyi: Pinya et al. 2013: 377, fig. 1 (♂)

Material examined.

GEORGIA • 2♂; Imereti, Baghdati; 6 May 2021; leg: G. Gorgodze; JLGT • 1♂ (CaBOL-ID 1021655); Ilemi; leg: T. Lomidze; 16 June 2021; JLGT • 1♂; Vartsikhe; leg: A. Babunashvili; 5 April 2024; JLGT • 1♂; Ajameti; leg: A. Bubunashvili; 29 April 2024; JLGT.

Diagnosis.

For diagnosis, see Wu (2017).

Barcoding.

We obtained a single sequence from the specimen CaBOL-ID 1021655 (BOLD:ABY5349), identical to those of A. pernyi from Russia (Siberia), India, North Korea, South Korea, and China (BOLD:ABY5349).

Remarks.

Originally native to China, where it was domesticated for silk production, A. pernyi is also distributed across Mongolia, northern China, India, and Japan. The main food source for its larvae are Quercus species (Wang et al. 2023). In Europe, it was first introduced to France in the 19th century for its potential in silk production, following an epidemic that affected Bombyx mori (Linnaeus, 1758) in 1855. The species was subsequently introduced to Spain, initially in Navarra and Guipúzcoa (northern Spain) in 1875, and later in Barcelona and Castellón de la Plana (eastern Spain). It reached the Balearic Islands (Mallorca and Menorca) by the end of the 19th century. Today, its distribution in Europe is limited to the Balearic Islands and the province of Barcelona (Pinya et al. 2013). Specimens in our study collected in 2021 and 2024 confirm a stable, locally established population in Imereti, western Georgia; although so far, no substantial harm to local Quercus spp. has been documented. These are the first verified records of the genus Antheraea in the Caucasus. As with S. cynthia, A. pernyi was probably introduced to the South Caucasus for silk production purposes, most likely during the 1930s under Soviet agricultural initiatives. Although the original introduction site is unknown, the A. pernyi population in Imereti probably originated from individuals that escaped silk farming facilities established in the past.

Figure 2-3. 

General habitus of (2: Micromelalopha sieversi, male, Tbilisi (Sanzona); 2: Antheraea pernyi (CaBOL-ID 1021655), male. Baghdati). Scale bars: 5 mm (2); 35 mm (3).

Despite growing awareness, comprehensive data on non-native and invasive invertebrates in Georgia remain limited, underlining the need for systematic monitoring, early detection, and regional collaboration to assess and mitigate their impacts. In 2014, the box tree moth Cydalima perspectalis (Walker, 1859) was recorded for the first time in Georgia (Matsiakh 2016). Its larval feeding habits pose a serious threat to Buxus colchica Pojark, an endangered species listed in the Georgian Red List (Burjanadze et al. 2019). Non-native invasive species have not been limited to Lepidoptera or to land organisms - the brown marmorated stink bug Halyomorpha halys (Stål, 1855) became established in 2015 and has since become a major agricultural pest (Kharabadze 2022); the Asian rapa whelk Rapana venosa (Valenciennes, 1846), a native of the western Pacific, was first recorded in the Black Sea in 1946, possibly transported via ship ballast water, fouling or through oyster transports, now poses a major threat to local mollusc fauna (Bondarev 2014); the ctenophores, Mnemiopsis leidyi A. Agassiz, 1865 and Beroe ovata Bruguière, 1789, were introduced in the Black Sea in the late 1980s and 1990s respectively. Mnemiopsis leidyi caused severe ecological damage by preying on zooplankton, fish eggs, and larvae, leading to the collapse of several fish stocks. The subsequent arrival of B. ovata, a natural predator of M. leidyi, helped control its population. This predator-prey dynamic played a key role in partially restoring ecological balance in the Black Sea ecosystem (Mamish et al. 2020).

A notable trend among terrestrial biological invasions is the geographical origin of these species. The climate and ecological conditions of the South Caucasus region, particularly Georgia, appear highly favourable for the establishment of many East Asian species. This pattern presents substantial risks to native biodiversity, agriculture, and forest ecosystems.

In the absence of a comprehensive list of non-native animal species introduced to Georgia in the recent historical period, we have attempted to compile available data from published sources and platforms, such as iNaturalist (with “Research Grade” status) and GBD. A single observation of a non-native freshwater jellyfish (Craspedacusta sowerbii) Lankester, 1880 was kindly provided by the founder of EcoFilms, Nika Tsiklauri (hereafter - EcoFilms). The present list of non-native taxa consists of 134 species (see Table 1). It should be noted that this list is not exhaustive and is subject to continuous updates as new data become available.

Cordial thanks to Giorg Gorgodze, Tengo Lomidze, and Alexandre Bubunashvili (all of Tbilisi, Georgia) for collecting and donating the specimens of Antheraea pernyi for the current study and Nika Tsiklauri for sharing the record of Craspedacusta sowerbii. Cordial thanks to the anonymous reviewers and Levan Mumladze (Editor) for their valuable suggestions. Special thanks to Henry Schofield for revising the English of the final version of the accepted manuscript.